For thousands of years, questions regarding the origin of the heavens, the earth and man have puzzled people all over the world. In western countries, the Judaic tradition taught that "God created the heaven and the earth and created man in his own image." While in China, myths such as that of Pangu creating the heavens and the earth and Nvwa creating man are widely known to everyone. However, none of these gave us an irrefragable answer of how the earth came into being and how mankind appeared.
Pangu

Fortunately, the development of science, especially modern archaeology, paleontology and geology offer powerful aids in the solving of these mysteries.
In China, the human fossils found in Wushan in the county of Chongqing were over 3,000,000 years old and are believed to be the remnants of the earliest humankind that lived in China. Also, large quantities of fossils have been found widely spread over a number of other sites in China. Known as Yuanmou Man, Lantian Man, Peking Man, and Upper Cave Man (Shandingdong Man), these provide sufficient evidence to substantiate the fact that China was one of man's birthplaces as well as ancient Africa.

Archaeological and paleontological research in recent decades has proved that the appearance of man was the result of evolution while primates are considered to be his ancestors.

In the long process of evolution from primate to ancient man, labor plays a significant role. Originally, the productive tools made and used by man were of coarsely chipped stone. In order to distinguish these from the ground stone implements that man used later, archaeologists named the period of making and using these chipped stone implements the Paleolithic Age (the Old Stone Age), and the age of making and using ground stone implements the Neolithic Age (the New Stone Age).

About 10,000 years ago, humans entered the Neolithic Age. In order to adapt to new circumstances, they moved from mountainous areas and settled in groups near water. Subsequently, houses were built, pottery was invented, primitive agriculture developed and thus man adopted a new life style in permanent settlements. As stone grinding and drilling techniques became more efficient, the production of various stone tools became more widely practiced with a greater dependence on their use. Forsaking a total reliance on hunting, man began to make a living by growing crops, specifically rice in the south and millet in the north.

In these ancient times, due to low productivity and an adverse environment, people had to live in groups and depend on their collective skills to survive. They worked together and equally shared the food they acquired. To facilitate the needs of survival and development a fair, upright and capable person was chosen as a head to lead the people in their work and to organize their defense against invasion. This became a process whereby Yao recommended Shun, Shun recommended Yu and Yu recommended Gaotao and so on. Later generations named this way of choosing a tribal head 'The Abdication System.' This period of widely practiced egalitarianism was characterized by peace, equality and the common ownership of wealth. So historians called it a 'Society of Great Harmony'.

In ancient times, people lived in tribes or groups. During the long development of history, as the population increased, some people inevitably broke away from their groups to form new clans. Some small clans, connected by a blood relationship, combined together to form large tribes. These clans, living in similar periods and places would have a similar lifestyle including their levels of productivity, mode of building and burial arrangements. However, in time these gave birth to a variety of different cultures such as the Yangshao Culture, Banpo Culture, Hemudu Culture, Daxi Culture, Dawenkou Culture, Majiayao Culture and Qujialing Culture.

In order to survive in an often inhospitable environment, ancient people had to struggle with various natural disasters. Many legends have been passed down to us from those times. For example, "Yu the Great Fighting the Flood" which has especial significance in China.

By the time the late primitive period had evolved, there was a large number of clans and tribal groups living in China. Archaeologists have recorded them as the Huaxia Group, the Eastern Tribes and the Southern Tribes. In the main, the Huaxia Group was comprised of both the Huangdi and Yandi Tribes. In due course, the influence of the Huaxia Group, while at the height of its power, extended to the Yangtze and the Hanshui river valleys. Later generations, such as those of the Yu, the Xia, the Shang and the Zhou, were all descendants of the Huangdi. In this way, the Huaxia Group, established a unique place in history because the Huangdi became the common ancestors of the Chinese nation.

With improved productivity, an individual was able to produce more than he could consume. This meant that following hostilities with neighboring clans captives were keep alive as slaves instead of being killed. These slaves were obliged to work and their total output became the property of their owners. In this way, private ownership evolved. As more and more people became either owners or slaves, a class structure developed within the society, thereby replacing the former primitive 'Society of Great Harmony'.

The Longshan Culture is a prime example of this period. In order to protect their own interests, the privileged classes abandoned the Abdication System and adopted a new political system and social regulations. After the death of Yu the Great, his son Qi killed the appointed successor and usurped power. In so doing, he established a new era of hereditary monarchy which subsequently ruled in China for nearly 4000 years. This was the time when, Xia (The 21st to the 17th century BC), the first hereditary dynasty in China began.

Paleolithic Age began in about 3,000,000 BC. It was during this period that human being underwent a long and slow course of physical evolution: first, from ape-man to Homo erectus, then past the earlier and later stages of Homo sapiens, the emergence of modern humans finished ancient mankind with almost the same bodily makeup as that of human today.

In those days, people depended primarily on fruit collecting and fishing. Generally they lived in groups and dwelled in caves. They had known since long the use of fire. At first, they happened to get kindling from big fire in the wild. Later they found out methods to catch sparks by drilling wood or rubbing two pieces of flint stone together. Fire played a significant role in the evolvement of human civilization. It provided lightening and heat, not only helping people keep away cold and wild beasts, but also enabling them to have food cooked to be better nourished. In turn fire changed living habits of primitive people.

As a result of low productivity, implements were roughly done by hand striking. They were made thick and clumsy only with few kinds available, serving simple purposes. Gradually, by the end of Paleolithic Age, the ancients learned the idea of polishing stones for better quality. They brought out a variety of tools. Besides stone articles and animal bone needles, there appeared bows and arrows, a set of devices for spear hurling, and the skill of punching holes.

Neolithic Age: Around 10,000 years ago, human entered Neolithic Age. The landmark of this age is the improvement of implements. Polished stone tools were widely used. They were neatly shaped, smaller in size and able to serve various purposes. Another feature this era claimed is the appearance of farming and livestock raising. Primitive people put an end to nomadic life and started a settled living. They retreated from mountain areas and migrated to the plains. Most of them settled down close to water source built up their houses and went in for busy social production. They grew rice along the banks of the Yangtze River while millet in the middle reach of Yellow River. Handicraftsmen became more professional, as pottery makers, fabric weavers and jadeware makers. It bid a farewell to the time when people were entirely subject to nature and marked the beginning of human civilization to make the best use of nature.

In aspect of social structure, miscegenation was replaced by monogamy. People' organization was enlarged from small groups to large tribal clan community. The best example can be found on the site of Jiangzhai, at Lintong County, Shaanxi Province.

Neolithic Age ended in 5,000 BC. While, in the rest of the world, it claims Maya Culture that flourished from 4,500 BC to 2,500 BC.

Yangshao Culture occurred in the late period of Neolithic Age about 4,950 to 6,950 years ago. It saw the flourish of pottery making. It was first discovered in Yangshao village of Mianchi City, Henan Province, hence the name. At that time, pottery workshops were distributed along the banks of the Yellow River, centering on Henan Province and the Central Plain of Shaanxi Province. Unexceptionally, all the pottery objects of this period appeared in red color, because the local clay of which they were made contained a high percentage of ferrous compounds that turned red after oxidation under high temperature. Hence, Yangshao Culture is often referred to as Painted Pottery Culture. The most striking piece is a basin with a design of human face and fish out of Banpo village in the neighborhood of Xi'an, Shaanxi Province.

On the other hand, Yangshao Culture marks a great leap in construction. Primitive villages were found in a neat and orderly arrangement on the site of Jiangzhai at Lingtong County, Shaanxi Province. In the center of the living quarter is a large open ground. Buildings are scattered around it in five groups. In the middle of each group stands a big house with ten or a score of houses arranged nearby. Two big moats, two meters (6.56 feet) or so both in width and depth, envelope the whole area as ancient defensive works. Outside of the moats, there discovered three graveyards and about 170 adult tombs. Children's burial jars were found close to houses.

During the days of Yangshao Culture, the primitive society culminated in tribal clan community. From the objects unearthed from tombs, a large amount of narrative or documentary pictures were carved inside of pottery jars or on the lids, including designs and figures of human, tortoise, bird and deer. They provide precious sources for the study of prehistoric mythology. Moreover, the remains of ancient hampered-earth city walls have been found in Xishan, Henan Province.

Banpo Culture belongs to Yangshao Culture of Neolithic Age, which originated in the middle valley of the Yellow River. Since it was discovered in the neighborhood of today's Banpo village, in Xi'an city in Shaanxi Province, it was named after this village, but thousands of years ago it was not so called. Primitive Banpo villagers lived 6,800-6,300 years ago, they came from two different tribes. In light of many kinds of farm implements and fishing tools excavated, they depended primarily on farming and fishing. At the same time, Banpo people cultivated a colored Pottery Culture, one of the most representative of Yangshao Culture. Their earthenwares were uniformly in red and colored with black pigment. The craftsmen had their potteries simply decorated, the most striking are the designs of fish that can be seen everywhere. The fish was finished with sketchy pattern. Since without a long-term of contact and observation, it is impossible to sketch an animal like fish with several strokes. It is concluded that fish should be the totem of ancient Banpo people. Here the masterpiece wares include tip-bottomed bottle, which is a water sucker under the principal of shifting gravity center; painted basin with design of a human face holding fish at the corners of mouth. Moreover, on certain similar parts of potteries are found twenty-two kinds of mysterious marks, which are estimated to be some primitive script.

Meanwhile Banpo Culture witnessed the time of matriarchal clan society. Women took a dominant position in everything and there was no permanent couple. After death, adult women and men were buried separately in communal graveyard, having potter wares and beads of animal bones as burial objects. Children, however, were not allowed be buried with adults. Mother put the body of her child into pottery jar and buried it in a pit close to her house. This special burial jar practice reveals that child was still not counted as the member of primitive community. And more burial articles were found in girl's pit than in that of boy.

Yu the Great was still remembered and respected as the ruler who put Yellow River under control. He lived about four thousand years ago. At that time, people suffered from big flood of Yellow River. Initially, King Shun, the ruler before Yu, assigned Yu's father Gun to handle the problem. Gun took the method by blocking up the water wherever flood occurred. After nine years, the situation turned out to be even worse with flood overflowing everywhere. King Shun was very angry about what Gun did. He dismissed Gun and reappointed Yu. Yu learned lessons from his father and adopted a new way of dredging water channel and conducting the river to the sea. He put his whole heart into this project of water control. It was said during this period of time, he had ever passed by his house three times but never went inside. It took him 13 years to tame the river. The story of Yu in fought of flood bespeaks fearless spirit of ancient people in front of natural disaster.

Later, King Shun who was impressed by Yu's exploits passed his throne to Yu. Yu the Great was the last legendary leader of primitive society, in which the election of leader was under merit system. It was Qi, the son of Yu that violated this practice. He killed the person Yu the Great appointed and succeeded his father's power. Qi founded the Xia Dynasty (21st-16th century BC) and initiated hereditary system of monarch.

Huangdi (Yellow Emperor)

Huangdi is regarded as ancestor of Chinese race. He was mystical chief of one of the strongest tribes in the middle valley of Yellow River. Because his tribe honored the virtue of earth, he was addressed after the yellow color of earth, the symbol of farming. During his days about 4,000 thousand years ago, it was the time of patriarchal clan community. Many tribes came to settle down around the reach of Yellow River and were engaged in farming. Wars arose between different tribes in sought of occupation of more lands and people suffered a lot from turbulent life. Huangdi decided to put an end to this chaotic situation. He worked out a set of moral code and trained his army. After about 56 battlements with other tribes, he conquered wide area along the Yellow River and was made chief of tribe union.

Huangdi was said to be the founder of Chinese civilization. He coined bronze money, practised medicine, invented boats, raised silk-worm and divided his realm into provinces. The story went that at age of 110, a yellow dragon, alighting from the sky, summoned the emperor to heaven on behalf of the king of heaven. When the emperor, riding on the back of the dragon is about to leave, his subjects, who were reluctant to let him go, dragged by his clothes. However, all that left were only part of the emperor's clothes and hat. In commemoration of Huangdi, his descendents buried his remainder at Mt. Qiaoshan, in present Shaanxi province and had his mausoleum built. Tradition passes down from then that every year on fifth day of fourth lunar month, Chinese people of Huangdi's origin will come to visit his mausoleum that has become the symbol of Chinese nation.

Longshan Culture represents a civilization in which both stone and bronze tools were in application. It was first discovered at Longshan town of Zhangqiu City in Shandong Province, hence its name. Its influence mainly spread out in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River about 4,350 to 3,950 years ago.

During the time of Longshan Culture, people were organized in patriarchal clan community.

In pottery making, they widely adopted the use of potter wheel. Painted potteries gave way to black ones. The black earthenwares were carefully polished for much finer quality, some objects even had the outer walls made as thin as eggshell. Longshan Culture, with the highest level of pottery making in Chinese history, is also known as Black Pottery Culture.

At the same time, bronze forge appeared. There are two pieces of bronze prick unearthed at Sanlihe village, in Jiaoxian County of Shandong Province, which remained from this transitional period between Stone Age and Bronze Age.

In aspect of construction, on the site of Longshan town, there found ruins of an earth platform, rectangular in shape. It was made of layers of compact earth. This kind of architectural technique prevailed during Shang Dynasty (16th B.C-11th B.C.). Furthermore, defensive works was built up in ground structure, evolving from oldest big moat underground. A large number of walls of rammed-earth walls came into being. Around Shandong Province, more than ten vestiges of ancient walls were discovered. Among them, there are seven walls densely located together, forming into wall complex. The appearance of wall marked the emergence of city that heralded the coming of a new era in which human civilization underwent mass production. Originally, the word wall stands for the word city.